THE BACKGROUND
Poland
The term "Poland" was used to designate western Slavic tribes living in the western parts of Eastern Europe. Over the centuries, some of the transient tribes were absorbed and part of the original population was lost. Sometimes the region formed a multinational state. The changes paralleled the changing political boundaries. Poland underwent periods of expansion and contraction due to internal and external pressures.
In the 2nd ½ of the 10th century, the Piat dynasty attempted to consolidate a new Polish state. 1025, Boleslas the Brave was coronated. Due to the dissension of his sons, Poland was divided into small duchies, some of which were subdivided. The last ruler of the Piat dynasty, Casimir III (or Casimir the Great) built a united state in the 2nd ½ of the 14th century. Meanwhile, the western neighbors (Bohemia, Germany) became stronger, and Poland went towards the east and southeast. This became pronounced with a loose union with Lithuania in 1386 which was formalized in 1569.
After the Mongol invasion in the 13th century, Lithuania absorbed western and southern Russian lands. When Lithuania joined with Poland in 1569, the large united state included Poland, Lithuania and Ruthenia (Ukraine) and expanded further eastward into Russian territory. The Russian state began gaining strength and exerted pressure on eastern Poland. After the Cossack uprising in the 17th century, part of the Ukraine went to Russia. 1772, Poland lost some of its territory to eastern and western neighbors. In 1793 and 1795, Poland lost all independence when it was partitioned by its eastern and western neighbors.
The constant shifting of borders caused changed in Poland's ethnic structure. The German colonization in the 13th and 14th centuries gave cities a German character, and Casimir's rule harbored an ethically diverse population of Poles, Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Armenians, Tatars, Germans, Jews and some French and Italians.
Geography and Economics
Poland was mostly a large plain comprising marshlands and meadows; a large part of which was covered by forests and rivers. The few roads were only usable part of the year. The heavy snow, rain, and overflowing of rivers inhibited passage across the roads for people and carriages. The Carpathian mountains had occasional access to the sea.
Since Poland was on a plain, it was susceptible to enemy attacks and its own raids against weaker neighbors. The abundance of soil, water, and woods determined the economy which was based ib grain, cattle, fish, fur, linen, and timber - some for export. Some of these were reprocessed by craftsmen like tanners, furriers, brewers, meadmakers, mill and sawmill workers.
Poland's geography also lead to a lack of communication and trade with other places. Although some trade routes opened up, it was not the vital factor for economic growth.
Social Structure
Unlike other western European states, Poland did not become an absolute state. After Casimir's death in 1370, the king gradually became dependent on the nobles. In order to strengthen their position, some king embarked on political, dynastic, or economic ventured that were not always in the country's best interest.
Nobility
The nobility was comprised of several groups: large landowners (magnates), middle knighthood, and minor gentry (szlachta or squires). An early aim of the nobility was to free their estates from the rule of the judicial, administrative and fiscal authority of the king by a legal form known as immunity (independence from the king or prince). Starting with the 14th century, after a dynasty expired or even at the death of a king, the next ruler had to go to the nobles for support. Starting in 1734, the nobles won charters that exempted them from taxes, gave them positions, established a parliament of nobles, and limited the king's right to make new legislation. The king then became a secondary role to the nobility and lost his power to the rich magnates who built their own economic systems and sometimes their own armies. Furthermore, the king needed the support of the szlachta who put local concerns over national ones.
Because of the fragmentation of power and the nobilities desire to maintain their agricultural monopolies, the Polish economy was stifled. Also, there was no centralized government to change the status quo or to raise an army to defend itself against impeding threats.
Church
The church became an important institution and promoted Polish patriotism. It continued to have special privileges and the bishops shared the status of nobility. Some members held high positions in the state, and the lower church officers were influential on the masses.
Cities
Beginning in the 13th century, new cities were founded through German colonization. After that, cities were mostly based on German (Magdeburg) Law from which they gained autonomy thus weakening the power of the princes. Some cities followed the western models of acquired rights, exclusiveness, and guilds. This caused conflicts between the rich merchants who made the city government and the shopkeepers and artisans who also wanted citizenship rights (cives) and were mostly second class citizens. There was also a lowest group called plebes (mob) who had no citizenship rights.
The lower classes were Poles and the upper ones were Germans, thus creating ethnic-social tensions that impeded the development of a central state.
The Peasants
The peasants comprised about 70% of the population. In time, most became tenants of the land owned by a lord like the feudal system. As new German cities arose, the older ones adopted the newer system in which new settlers received a portion of land in return for a few years of giving money and gifts. The peasants gained a certain autonomy and had a council that served as a low court for the peasants. With the growth of the grain export in the 15th century, the tenant system based on rents and/or labor was replaced with a system of servitude. Serfs lost all rights in 1518 when the kings refused to hear any complaints against the lords who had almost complete control over the peasants.
The Jews
The Jews first came as individuals or small groups and settled in the west under the protection of the princes. The Jewish position became more uniform with the consolidation of Poland in the 14th century. However, there were only a few thousand Jews out of a total population of 1 million -2 million. The eastward expansion was accompanied by Jewish immigration.
Kings granted Jews rights for economic and other reasons. As the power of the king declined, the risk of political and physical attack against the Jews increased in the large royal cities. The rise of the church and nobility gave the Jews new opportunities as people to whom they could rent houses to help build up the noble's own estates. The Jews became the middlemen between the peasants and the lords. Although they were seen as part of the "exploiter" class, the Jews were culturally closer to the peasants. The growth of the Jew paralleled the growth of Poland itself - as more land became available, more Jews could be hired as renters.
The Actual Jew and the Theological Jew
The Jews were able to succeed economically despite the backward system. Although the royal power was too weak to protect the Jew, it was also too weak to enforce anti-Jewish legislation. Trade, money lending, tax and revenue farming, and lease holding are important parts to an agricultural society, so some Jews became wealthy by as early as the 16th century. Unlike the Jews in western Europe, the Jews of Poland also borrowed money from the non-Jews. Therefore there could not be simple legislations of canceling debts.
The relationship between the Jews and Christians was a humanistic one, not a theological one.
THE MEDIEVAL JEW: A COMPOSITE PICTURE
The Polish Jew of the middle ages was either an immigrant or an immigrant's son from the West - Germany, Bohemia, Austria, and brought his own religious traditions, customs, way of life and vernacular. He will have a German name instead of or accompanying his Hebrew one and will bring the text or models for the protective charters. They layout of the cities in western Poland resembled those in Eastern Germany with the marketplace and other important buildings in the town center with narrow streets going to the city walls or gates. Some houses were made of stone, but in the far east part of Poland, most were made of wood. There was rarely any plumbing as pipes were installed in the large cities in the 14th - 16th centuries. The city was usually enclosed by a wall with gates. The walls served as a limit for the town's expansion. The buildings were close together, streets were crowded, and only the main streets has wooden beams as a method of pavement. In periods of rain or snow, the roads became nearly impassable. There was no organized sewage disposal and the butchers and slaughterhouses were in the center of the city who threw stuff out into the street. Epidemics resulted from unhygienic conditions. Houses had little furniture.
Jews were not segregated because of any formal legislation. In fact, integration was allowed if not encouraged in the charter. Furthermore, non-Jews had to come to the assistance of a Jew calling for help upon being attacked. Although the church passed resolutions about segregation, this was rarely the legal practice.
Books
The possession of books was not rare.
Clothing
In the Western countries, Jews would wear clothing that distinguished themselves from the non-Jews possibly for religious reasons as a barrier against the outside world. After the 4th Lateran Council in 1215, this may have resulted from mandatory prescription. Beginning in 1267, many churches adopted resolutions that ordered the Jews to wear distinctive clothing - at least hats - and at times the state itself required such identification. This seemed to have little effect as Burghers, church officials, and other dignitaries complained in the 15th century that the Jews wore clothing indistinguishable form the Christians. However a rabbi in the 16th century deals with a problem of a Jew who because of a situation is forced to dress like a Christian, indicating that there was some difference.
Food
Poor people ate cereals, black bread, vegetables, few dairy products and little meat and fish. Wealthy people ate white bread, dairy foods, a lot of meat, fish, herring etc.
Immigrant Character
Some adapted, others resisted change.
Learning
Contemporary settlements in Poland were too poor to have people learned in Torah. They hired anyone they could find to fill the role of leadership of teaching, leading in prayer etc.
Observance and Laxity
Weinryb hypothesizes that there must be some laxity from the lack of a central intelligent body of leaders to preserve and transmit tradition, compounded by the transience of the individuals. By the Jews, strict observance was the ideal and life was theoretically permeated with faith. There is a preserved question of Jews carrying without and eiruv on shabbat to save stuff from a fire. Also, people were lax in stam yainam. People would gamble with non-Jews.
Frontier Conditions
The immigrant character and the frontier conditions encouraged aggressiveness and crime.
Internal Tensions
The dissension between groups varied among different communities. In Cracow had dissension between the indigenous and immigrant groups. This was accentuatesd by the increasingly important role of Czech Jews played in Cracow. There was also tension with the Sephardic Jews.
Jews and Christians: Converts
Everyday life and business required interaction with Christians, and sometimes partnerships. The Jews therefore needed to have some understanding of Polish and medieval Latin (the language of documents). This also lead to more intimate relationships, including bishops defending Jews. Permissiveness and daily interactions were factors in Jews converting to Christianity. There were some forced conversions.
Kinship Groups
There were barriers between the Jews and Christians. For the Christian, the Jew was an infidel and a non-believer. Christian theology doomed the Jew to servitude and therefore the Jew was unfit to occupy a position of supremacy over the Christians. The Church advocated segregation. Since Christianity had an image of being victimized, the Jew became the implied oppressors. This lead to accusations of taking Christian children and was propoagated when Jews would take the businesses and livelihood of the Christian.
The Jews had an idea of superiority of being the chosen nation. The principles in the Talmud of segregation prevailed even if the actual laws did not. The actual Christian was the oppressor - there was some persecution in Poland against the Jews. The Jews tended to look inward to group solidarity for strength. The Jews ultimately kept to themselves. This solidarity extended into businesses as Jews went into partnerships for money lending. The family also played a role in the business as wives and sons become part of the enterprise. This group solidarity enabled the Jews to cope in difficult environments.
Women's Status
Men were the primary figures in the religion. To protect women polygamy and forced divorces were forbidden. In practice, women shared or single-handedly were responsible for earning a living. Some were praised for learning, or piety and women were regarded as partners in land ownership.
The Image of the Idealized Jew
Jewish life and thought were saturated with ideas of (based on epithets from headstones) faith, honor, wealth, study of Torah and piety - the essence of life.
Heritage
The "devout of Germany" believed in a mystic relation to God, a system of penance which was influenced by Christianity. Reward and punishment plays a role. This also came with a lot of symbolism - linking things in terms of mysterious significance.
LEGAL STATUS, THEORY AND PRACTICE
Synagogues and Cemeteries
Although Jewish synagogues and cemeteries were protected by Jewish privileges, there were numerous attacks. The Church attempted at times to place restrictions on the shuls - e.g. building in certain locations or repairing existing ones.
Political Rights
In Polish society, the power was in the hands of the rulers, nobility, and higher clergy. The vast majority of people in the countryside did not have political rights. After a struggle with the cites, there was a form of permanent representation of the people. The Jews were not regarded as citizens and therefore were not represented in the government. However, they set up their own organizations that paralleled the city governments.
In some places, the Jews did have the right to vote for certain officials and in others, the mayor had to take an oath to equally defend the rights of the Jews. The Jews also had a syndic who served as a defense lawyer, and a lobbyist for Jewish causes.
Security of Life and Property
There was little to no security. The city and state provided inadequate protection against wars, violence etc. The Jews were safer from attacks from the Tatars as they lived in the walled cities, but were more succeptable to individual attacks of Cossacks, pogroms, etc. The non-Jews were equally subjected to the mobs.
POLAND THROUGH THE EYES OF POLISH JEWS